He ruled under martial law from 1972 until 1981[13] and kept most of his martial law powers until he was deposed in 1986, branding his rule as "constitutional authoritarianism"[14][15]:414 under his Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (New Society Movement). Photograph: Romeo Gacad/AFP/Getty Images Marcos Sr died in1989,. In less than 20 days however, the Sandiganbayan listed Imelda's "advanced age" and health condition as considerations for allowing the accused to post bail. [94], The biggest controversy arising from Marcos's service during World War II, however, would concern his claims during the 1962 Senatorial Campaign of being "most decorated war hero of the Philippines"[29] He claimed to have been the recipient of 33 war medals and decorations, including the Distinguished Service Cross and the Medal of Honor, but researchers later found that stories about the wartime exploits of Marcos were mostly propaganda, being inaccurate or untrue. Ferdinand Marcos was known for favoring family members with business concessions. [146][147], Marcos's second term effectively ended a little under two years and nine months later, when Marcos announced on September 23, 1972, that he had placed the Philippines under martial law. [83] He graduated cum laude. [8][9][10] Sandro Marcos, the most politically prominent of the fourth generation of Marcoses, has argued that political dynasties are simply a "natural progression" for members of powerful families. We must prepare to coexist peaceably with Communist China. The Marcos family, a political family in the Philippines, owns various assets that Philippine courts have determined to have been acquired through illicit means during the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos from 1965-1986. [290], Rudy Giuliani pressed for indicting of the Marcoses for violating the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO). Why would we admit to something we did not do? The opposition to Marcos united behind two American-educated leaders, Aquino's widow, Corazon, and her running mate, Salvador Laurel. The jewelry included 70 pairs of jewel-studded cufflinks; an ivory statue of the infant Jesus with a silver mantle and a diamond necklace. [422] Jaime Ongpin, who is a brother of Marcos trade minister Roberto Ongpin, was later dismissed by Cory Aquino and later died in an apparent suicide after "he had been depressed about infighting in Aquino's cabinet and disappointed that the 'People Power' uprising which had toppled dictator Ferdinand Marcos had not brought significant change". [91][92], Marcos's military service during World War II has been the subject of debate and controversy, both in the Philippines and in international military circles. Bongbong Marcos is the son of 10th president Ferdinand Marcos, who was in power from 1965 to 1986.He belongs to the prominent and controversial Marcos family. [106], Marcos's first term also saw the Philippine Senate's expose of the Jabidah massacre in March 1968, where a Muslim man named Jibin Arula testified that he had been the lone survivor of a group of Moro army recruits which had been executed en-masse on Corregidor island on March 18, 1968. The fourth and fifth condominium were bought for $270,000 and $1.1 million respectively. Imelda was acquitted not because she did not commit any crime but because the United States jury deemed that the charges and trial did not belong in a US court. Among those who gathered to oppose the burial were youth groups and opponents of the burial of Ferdinand Marcos in the Libingan ng mga Bayani. [375] The agency has estimated that Marcos stole around $5 billion to $10 billion from the Philippine treasury[376][377][378][379] during his presidency from 1965 to 1986, while earning an annual salary equivalent to only US$13,500.00. MANILA Ferdinand Marcos Jr., son of the late dictator whose family plundered billions of dollars, was elected president of the Philippines by a landslide, according to preliminary results, 36 . Mr Marcos Jr, who was then aged 28 and early in his political career, joined the escape. The amount is also equivalent to almost half of the combined GNP of the world's top 10 economies in 1998. . 1941 which recognizes and supports CIBI as a suitable credit bureau to promote the development and maintenance of rational and efficient credit processes in the financial system and in the economy as a whole. [240] A considerable amount of this money went to the Marcos family and friends in the form of behest loans. [140][141][139], Another major event during Marcos's second term was the Philippine Constitutional Convention of 1971, which was marred in May 1972 when a delegate exposed a bribery scheme in which delegates were paid to vote in favor of the Marcoses with First Lady Imelda Marcos herself implicated in the alleged payola scheme. Youth and family Ferdinand Edralin Marcos was born on September 11, 1917, in Sarrat, a village in the Ilocos North region of the island of Luzon in the Philippines. [37][38] Marcos placed the Philippines under martial law on September 23, 1972,[39][40] shortly before the end of his second term. A fortified bread known as nutribun, and the controversy surrounding it, has also reappeared. During a campaign in Manila's Tondo district, Marcos retorted:[262]. Can Nigeria's election result be overturned? At least two activists were confirmed dead and several were injured by the police. [107][108] The allegations in the expose became a major flashpoint which ignited the Moro insurgency in the Philippines. [293][294][295], Marcos died at St. Francis Medical Center in Honolulu at 12:40 a.m (HST) on September 28, 1989, of kidney, heart, and lung ailments, 17 days after his 72nd birthday. The program planned to achieve this by pushing farmers to use newly developed technologies including high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, low-cost fertilizer, and herbicides. Economists have noted that poverty incidence grew from 41% in the 1960s at the time Marcos took the Presidency to 59% when he was removed from power. The Prime Minister also acted as head of the National Economic Development Authority. [102][164], By 1972 the convention had already been bogged down by politicking and delays, when its credibility took a severe blow in May 1972 when a delegate exposed a bribery scheme in which delegates were paid to vote in favor of the Marcoses with First Lady Imelda Marcos herself implicated in the alleged payola scheme. Due to the absence of foreign exchange controls in Hong Kong, it was impossible to determine the origin of the money. [442] It is said to be Ferdinand Marcos's gift to his wife Imelda, whose hometown was Leyte. American investors were discouraged by the Filipino economic elite who were against the corruption that by now had become endemic in the Marcos regime. A ruling family which was driven out of power. The properties allegedly amassed by the First Family were the Crown Building, Lindenmere Estate, and a number of residential apartments (in New Jersey and New York), a shopping center in New York, mansions (in London, Rome, and Honolulu), the Helen Knudsen Estate in Hawaii, and three condominiums in San Francisco, California. Due to these dispersals, many students who had previously held "moderate" positions (i.e., calling for legislative reforms) became convinced that they had no choice but to call for more radical social change. Creating the Metropolitan Manila and the Metropolitan Manila Commission and for Other Purposes", "Governorship of Manila Is Increasing Powers of Imelda Marcos", "Meet Arturo Tanco, a technocrat who tends the vital farming front", "Marcos best president if not for dictatorship Duterte", "Philippine Agriculture: Today and the Future! Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos held the Guinness World Record for the largest-ever theft from a government for decades,[64] although Guinness took the record down from their website while it underwent periodic review a few weeks before the 2022 election. At 15:00 PST (GMT+8) on February 25, 1986, Marcos talked to United States Senator Paul Laxalt, a close associate of the United States President, Ronald Reagan, asking for advice from the White House. [251][pageneeded][252], According to World Bank Data, the Philippine's Annual Gross Domestic Product quadrupled from $8 billion in 1972 to $32.45 billion in 1980, for an inflation-adjusted average growth rate of 6% per year, while debt stood at US$17.2 billion by the end of 1980. Reagan personally wrote to Marcos informing him that he believed his innocence of the charges against him, but reminding him that the case was out of his hands. Published 28 Mar 2022. [430][431][104], Most of these infrastructure projects and monuments were paid for using foreign currency loans[432][430] and at great taxpayer cost. [416], Marcos's administration spawned new oligarchs in Philippine society who became instant millionaires. The body was only brought back to the Philippines four years after Marcos's death during the term of President Fidel Ramos. [491], The country crafted a large number of decrees, laws, and edicts during Marcos's term. Ferdinand Marcos Jr., the son of the country's late dictator, escorted Sara Duterte-Carpio, the daughter of the current president, Rodrigo Duterte, past guests sitting in white trellis-backed. Only $4bn of this has ever been recovered. [406][pageneeded], Imelda Marcos purchased five expensive Manhattan condominiums at the Olympic Towers, located on 5th Avenue, New York. For example, before RICO, a person who instructed someone else to murder could be exempt from prosecution because they did not personally commit the crime. The cost of the construction reached $22 million and was acquired through the Japanese Official Development Assistance loans. By the time of the study, Marcos had only been outspent in infrastructure building for a period of one year, during the term of Fidel Ramos.[427]. He is running for Congress and has featured heavily in the campaign, especially online, where his. The demonstrations, dubbed the People's Power Revolution, inspired protests around the world and became a defining image of the decade. The Manila Electric Company (Meralco) was one of the largest corporations in the Philippines before the declaration of martial law. He declared martial law in 1972 and was finally toppled by the People Power Revolution of 1986. No. Every time I have ever dealt with these guys, I have never dealt with a document signed by a principal." Ferdinand Marcos Jr, only son and namesake of the Philippines' late kleptocratic dictator, looks set to win the country's upcoming presidential election in May. [226] The Philippine economy began going into decline in 1981, continuing to do so by the time of the Benigno Aquino Jr. assassination in 1983. "What I would like to see happen is we take her hostage", Marcos told Chastain. Contrary to the widely-held notion that the protests were secluded only within Metro Manila, protests against Marcos also occurred in the provinces and islands of Visayas and Mindanao.[284][285]. Before that could happen, however, the Marcoses were overtaken by the events of World War II. [161] On March 16 of that year, the Philippine Congress constituted itself into a Constituent Assembly and passed Resolution No. [130][347], Victims included Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila student Liliosa Hilao,[350] Archimedes Trajano and Juan Escandor. The American economist James K. Boyce calls this phenomenon "immiserizing growth", when economic growth, and political and social conditions, are such that the rich get absolutely richer and the poor become absolutely poorer. [491], The governorship of Metro Manila was the second most powerful office in the republic. [457] The program is said to have catered to rich landowners and has been criticized for leaving poor farmers in debt[457] and for having become a vehicle of political patronage. [487] It reoriented the teaching of civics and history[487][488] so that it would reflect values that supported the Bagong Lipunan and its ideology of constitutional authoritarianism. [130], Opposition groups quickly grew in the campuses, where students had the time and opportunity to be aware of political and economic issues. His wife, Imelda Marcos, made infamous in her own right by the excesses that characterized her and her husband's conjugal dictatorship,[60][61][62] is the source of the term "Imeldific". [234] Many people questioned whether he still had capacity to govern, due to his grave illness and the ballooning political unrest. He had returned to the Philippines after three years in exile in the United States, where he had a heart bypass operation to save his life after Marcos allowed him to leave the Philippines to seek medical care. MANILA, PhilippinesSince 2015, there's been an attempt to paint Ferdinand Marcos' dictatorship as a golden age for the Philippines through tweaked facts and outright lies. In 1978, Ferdinand Marcos became Prime Minister of the Philippines, marking the return of the position for the first time since the terms of Pedro Paterno and Jorge Vargas during the American occupation. The True Story Of The Woman Who Stole Billions From The - Grunge The most notable of these was the series of protests during the first three months of 1970 a period that has since come to be known as the First Quarter Storm. [6]:23 Mariano Marcos, his brother Pio, his son Ferdinand, and his brother-in-law Quirino Lizardo all became suspects. By being more willing than those previous presidents to use foreign loans to fund construction projects, he was able to achieve construct more roads and schoolbuildings than any previous administration. Given a new life on TikTok, "Bagong Lipunan" embodies nostalgia. [234] Marcos's regime was sensitive to publicity of his condition; a palace physician who alleged that during one of these periods Marcos had undergone a kidney transplant was shortly afterwards found murdered. The walkout of computer technicians was led by Linda Kapunan[265] and the technicians were protected by Reform the Armed Forces Movement (RAM) officers led by her husband Lt. Col. Eduardo "Red" Kapunan. On April 14, 1982, Credit Information Bureau, Inc. was incorporated as a non-stock, non-profit corporation. The family accumulated immense wealth over Marcos Sr's time in office, stripping up to $13.5 billion from the country's coffers to fund their lavish lifestyle. These included hospitals[428] like the Philippine Heart Center, Lung Center, and Kidney Center, transportation infrastructure like San Juanico Bridge (formerly Marcos Bridge), Pan-Philippine Highway, North Luzon Expressway, South Luzon Expressway,[429] and Manila Light Rail Transit (LRT). [241], In The Making of the Philippines, Frank Senauth (p.103) says:[242], Marcos himself diverted large sums of government money to his party's campaign funds. Ferdinand "Bongbong" Marcos Jr. wins the Philippine election They had three children: Irene, Ferdinand Jr and Imee. [355], While the numbers of political detainees went down, the number of people killed rose and spiked in 1981, the year martial law was officially lifted by Marcos according to Task Force Detainees of the Philippines. This focus on infrastructure, which critics saw as a propaganda technique, eventually earned the colloquial label "edifice complex". MANILA Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos Jr., son of the late dictator Ferdinand E. Marcos, was sworn in to office Thursday, sealing a family comeback that was decades in the . [97] Only two of the supposed 33 awards the Gold Cross and the Distinguished Service Star were given during the war, and both had been contested by Marcos's superiors. They eventually had three children: Imee, Ferdinand Jr., also known as "Bongbong," and Irene. Mariano Marcos fought a highly contested election against Nalundasan for the same seat in 1935, and Nalundasan won by a landslide. [333] Anybody could be picked up at any time for any reason by the military or the police, according to Raissa's husband, journalist Alan Robles. Aside from being allowed to raise electricity rates, Meralco was also exempted from paying the duty of oil imports, which is a form of indirect subsidy it should share with poor consumers. armory. In 1981, Vice President George H. W. Bush praised Marcos for his "adherence to democratic principles and to the democratic processes". The Marcos family was noton that list. Now they have the nerve to question my war record. [109][110] According to Primitivo Mijares, author of the book The Conjugal Dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos and Imelda Marcos, the opposition Liberal Party would later confirm that many of his war medals were only acquired in 1962 to aid in his reelection campaign for the Senate, not for his presidential campaign. [23] He gave relatives government-related jobs, often putting them in charge of agencies or government-owned corporations with cash incomes. To secure additional aid for his campaign, Marcos threatened to search every visiting American naval vessel. Andres Avelino Marcos Barba: Son of Col. Marcelino Barba and Fortuna Edralin Marcos, sister of Ferdinand Marcos. Pres. 889, through which he assumed emergency powers and suspended the writ of habeas corpus[182] an act which would later be seen as a prelude to the declaration of martial law more than a year later. The Marcos regime officially attributed the explosions to communist "urban guerillas",[185] and Marcos included them in the list of "inciting events" that served as rationalizations for his declaration of martial law. [384] In 1998, the Philippine Supreme Court overturned the previous conviction of Imelda Marcos and acquitted her of corruption charges. However, government spending for the BNPP continues long after that. Ito ay sina Luis Mariano Constantino Araneta at Alfonso Fernando Luis Araneta. Upon his re-election to the Presidency in 1981, Marcos was succeeded as Prime Minister by an American-educated leader and Wharton graduate, Cesar Virata, who was elected as an Assemblyman (Member of the Parliament) from Cavite in 1978. Please consider summarizing the material. [148], Groups considered "radical" by the media of the time included:[139], When Marcos became president in 1965, Philippine policy and politics functioned under a post-World War II geopolitical framework. [86][pageneeded], Marcos first shot into national notoriety over the murder of Julio Nalundasan. He also assured him that they will have every opportunity to prove their innocence in the US justice system. Over three decades since a people's revolution toppled the elder Marcos, his son, 64-year-old Ferdinand "Bongbong" Marcos Jr., is within reach of the presidency, leading polls for the May . [227], On August 21, 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr. was assassinated on the tarmac at Manila International Airport. 42", "Corruption in Philippines: Marcos was the worst", "Cory Aquino's betrayal of 'People Power', "Ongpin last top official to take his life", "Marcos's unmatched legacy: Hospitals, schools and other infrastructures", "Masagana 99, Nutribun, and Imelda's 'edifice complex' of hospitals", "Edifice Complex: Building on the Backs of the Filipino People", "Executive Order No. According to reports in the Guardian and the Washington Post, they carried with them some essential belongings, including $7 million in cash and gems (some of which were transported in diaper. However, due to Finance Secretary Jaime Ongpin's warning[424] on the consequences of a debt default, which includes isolating the country from the international financial community and hampering the economic recovery, Corazon Aquino honored all the debts incurred during the Marcos Administration,[425] contrary to expectations of left-learning organizations such as Ibon Foundation that advocated for non-payment of debt. [387] In 2010, she was ordered to repay the Philippine government almost $280,000 for funds taken by Ferdinand Marcos in 1983. [29][30] After World War II, he became a lawyer then served in the Philippine House of Representatives from 1949 to 1959 and the Philippine Senate from 1959 to 1965. [407][pageneeded] Dewey Dee, one of Marcos's main nominees, as well as Jose Yao Campos would later reveal how they fronted Marcos's investments both locally and abroad via at least 25 interlocking corporations set up for this purpose. [100] Eventually, Marcos ran for his father's old post as representative of the 2nd district of Ilocos Norte and won three consecutive terms, serving in the House of Representatives from 1949 to 1959. [137][138][139], Marcos responded to both groups with military force. Alex Bowie/Getty Images. Ferdinand Marcos and family in Manila after his inauguration as president in 1965. Credit: Corbis. [185], However, only one of these incidents the one in the Carriedo shopping mall went beyond damage to property; one woman was killed and about 40 persons were injured. [406][pageneeded] Most of the major real estate investments were Imelda's purchases of real estate in New York, Jose Campos Yao's investments in Texas and Seattle, and crony purchases in California. [439], The San Juanico Bridge is part of the Pan-Philippine Highway and links the provinces of Leyte and Samar through Tacloban City and Santa Rita, Samar. [78][79] He is a Chinese mestizo descendant, just like many other presidents. [222] The lifting of martial law was timed with the election of US President Ronald Reagan and the visit of Pope John Paul II, to get support from Reagan and minimize criticism from the Pope. They have three children, including a son named Ferdinand Marcos Junior, who they nickname "Bongbong". "[266], The failed election process gave a decisive boost to the "People Power movement". The land would be valued at $51 million. [129] The Marcos administration ran to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help, and the IMF offered a debt restructuring deal. Manila: Former first lady Imelda Marcos has a total of eight male grandchildren by her three children, so no one would be interested to inherit her famous collection of about 3,000 pairs of shoes . We must prepare for that day. [49] Marcos then fled with his family to Hawaii. Avelino Barba's bodyguard allegedly shot and killed 17-year old Apolinario Buendia while Avelino Barba allegedly shot Buendia's parents during a fight over a girls volleyball match in Makati City in July 1978. In 1998 however, the Supreme Court acquitted Imelda Marcos of corruption charges from a previous graft conviction in 1993. Its budget is second to the national government. One of the most controversial leaders of the 20th century, Marcos's rule was infamous for its corruption,[16][17][18] extravagance,[19][20][21] and brutality. In addition, she was elected as Assemblyman for Region IV-A to the Batasan Pambansa from 1978 to 1984.[22]. It includes the CCP main building, Folk Arts Theater, Philippine International Convention Center, Manila Film Center and Coconut Palace (also called the Tahanang Pilipino). Imee Marcos said Saturday. ", "Bureau of Labor Statistics CPI Inflation Calculator", "Time taking its toll on martial law victims", "The Marcos Verdict; Marcos Is Cleared of All Charges In Racketeering and Fraud Case", "BBC News Asia-Pacific Imelda Marcos acquitted", "Imelda Marcos allowed to travel to Singapore despite graft cases", "Imelda Marcos and her road to vindication", "Secret Files Expose Offshore's Global Impact", "BIR chief ready to investigate Pinoys with offshore accounts", "Imelda Marcos' ex-secretary sentenced over stolen masterpieces", "Former Marcos Aide Sentenced in Art Sale", "ICIJ releases database revealing thousands of secret offshore companies", "Duterte: Marcoses offer settlement on family wealth", "Facebook Gallery: Draft Bill on Compromise Deal Between Marcos and Duterte Government", "Marcos loyalist proposes deal with gov't on Marcos wealth", "The Marcos Empire: Gold, Oil, Land and Cash", "Imelda Marcos rises again in the Philippinesthrough her son Bongbong", "Marcos' First Foreign Accounts Traced to '68", "Money trail: The Marcos billions | 31 years of amnesia", "Swiss Bank Found with $800 Million in Marcos's Name", "Imelda Marcos verdict shows scheme to earn $200M from Swiss foundations", "The Southeast Missourian - Google News Archive Search", "Taxpayers To Pay Marcos Debt Until 2025, IBON features Vol X No. The Center for Research and Communication, a Philippine private think-tank, estimated that Marcos and his cronies took away not only $10 million but $30 billion since the 1950s. Millions of people lived in extreme poverty as the country's debt mounted. During his election campaign in the 1965 presidential election, Marcos's life became the basis of the biographical film Iginuhit ng Tadhana (The Ferdinand E. Marcos Story), which starred Luis Gonzales as Marcos. In 1997, Credit Information Bureau, Inc. was incorporated and transformed into a private entity and became CIBI Information, Inc. CIBI is a provider of information and intelligence for business, credit and individuals. A month later, the Marcoses moved into a pair of residences in Makiki Heights, Honolulu, which were registered to Marcos cronies Antonio Floirendo and Bienvenido and Gliceria Tantoco. Philippines. Cheating was reported on both sides. 1081 was formally lifted on January 17, 1981, Marcos retained virtually all of his powers as dictator until he was ousted by the EDSA Revolution. Reagan gave his tacit approval to this. "As the sixth President of the Philippine Republic, Ferdinand Edralin Marcos, 49, has been in office only ten months, but in that time he has taken significant steps toward providing the. Yet he received warnings from the Philippine embassy in Washington that "provisions should now be made in anticipation of a possible phasing out or minimization of US aid to the Republic of the Philippines, both for military aid and non-military items, considering the evolving temper of the American Congress." President Marcos ran while the major opposition parties, the United Nationalists Democratic Organizations (UNIDO), a coalition of opposition parties and LABAN, boycotted the election. [288], Within two weeks of his arrival to the United States, the Marcos family and their cronies received hundred of criminal and civil cases filed in Hawaii, San Francisco, and New York. 2023 BBC. [381], In 1990, Imelda Marcos, his widow, was acquitted of charges that she raided the Philippine's treasury and invested the money in the United States by a US jury. Communist Party Leader Jose Maria Sison had calculated that Marcos could be provoked into cracking down on his opponents, thereby driving thousands of political activists into the underground, the anonymous former officials said. With tax revenues unable to fund his administration's 70% increase in infrastructure spending from 1966 to 1970, Marcos began tapping foreign loans, creating a budget deficit 72% higher than the Philippine government's annual deficit from 1961 to 1965. The economic and political instability combined to produce the worst recession in Philippine history in 1984 and 1985, with the economy contracting by 7.3% for two successive years[226] and poverty incidence at 49% or almost half the Philippine population. [207], By 1977, the armed forces had quadrupled and over 60,000 Filipinos had been arrested for political reasons. Data debunk Marcos's economic 'golden years', "Transcript of ABS-CBN Interview with Pablo Martinez, co-accused in the Aquino murder case", "Marcos Underwent Kidney Transplants, Doctors Say", "Autocrat With a Regal Manner, Marcos Ruled for 2 Decades", "Martial law: costly lessons in economic development", "NTG: 'Subversive Lives,' libro tungkol sa pinagdaanan ng Pamilya Quimpo noong Martial Law", "The Marcos legacy of fraudulent and illegitimate debts", "Sugar and the Origins of Modern Philippine Society", "History of the Philippine Sugar Industry", "The Roots of the Philippines' Economic Troubles", Structural Adjustment and Poverty Alleviation in the Philippines, Philippine Institute for Development Studies, "Code of Conduct Fundamentals for Domestic Credit Rating Agencies", "RP's biggest credit research firms form alliance", "Criminalizing Colonialism: Democracy Meets Law in Manila", "Marcos Blasts U.S. Reports He Was a Phony War Hero: American Records Fail to Back Him", "The Final Report of the Fact-Finding Commission: IV: Military Intervention in the Philippines: 1986 1987", "Collapes of Marcos regime ends Soviet courtship", "IN SOVIET, A SHIFT TO INCREASING SUPPORT FOR MARCOS", "Gringo plotted to kill Marcos Almonte", "Enrile retracts 'Act of Contrition' he made when he thought he was facing death in 1986", "Marcos Flees and is Taken to Guam; U.S. Only in the Philippines could a leader like Ferdinand Marcos, who pillaged his country for over 20 years, still be considered for a national burial. The final tally of the COMELEC had Marcos winning with 10,807,197 votes against Aquino's 9,291,761 votes. [436]:169 This shift in the prioritization of projects was so significant that by 19771980, projects in the "conspicuous capital outlays" category had ballooned to 20% of the Philippines' capital outlays up from a negligible percentage at the beginning of the Marcos administration.
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